MSc Applied International Development

Title:

Gender and Development

Code:

IDM012

Convenor:

DR Sarah Cardey

Summary:

Examine how gendered roles and perspectives influence development outcomes. Explore the specific ways in which underdevelopment and the process of achieving greater social and economic security may be experienced differently by women and men. Evaluate theories and methods of analysing gendered aspects of development and learn how these may be used in policy formulation and project design. Learn through a combination of lectures, guided preparatory readings, and student-led group discussions.

Assessment Method:

Assignment 95%, Oral 5%

Disclaimer:

The modules described on this page are what we currently offer. Modules may change for your year of study as we regularly review our offerings to ensure they’re informed by the latest research and teaching methods.

Title:

Participatory interventions in development

Code:

IDM013

Convenor:

PROF Peter Dorward

Summary:

Learn how participation and participatory approaches can support the processes of development. Evaluate the strengths and limitations of participation and learn how to maximise the benefits in development initiatives. Develop skills in the use of specific participatory methods and how to integrate them into practical work.

Assessment Method:

Assignment 75%, Report 25%

Disclaimer:

The modules described on this page are what we currently offer. Modules may change for your year of study as we regularly review our offerings to ensure they’re informed by the latest research and teaching methods.

Title:

Research and study skills for independent learning

Code:

IDM071

Convenor:

DR David Rose

Summary:

Identify the standards expected and develop the skills required to study and conduct research at postgraduate level. Through lectures, tutorials and coursework, learn how to demonstrate good academic practice in referencing source material; how to review academic literature; how to synthesise information and develop an argument; how to communicate information with clarity; how to select appropriate research methods and resources; and how to write academically in the context of coursework and dissertation research.

Assessment Method:

Assignment 70%, Oral 30%

Disclaimer:

The modules described on this page are what we currently offer. Modules may change for your year of study as we regularly review our offerings to ensure they’re informed by the latest research and teaching methods.

Title:

Dissertation (International Development & Applied Economics)

Code:

IDM072

Convenor:

DR Sarah Cardey

Summary:

Conduct independent research on a topic of your choice with the support of an academic supervisor. Apply appropriate research and analytical skills and produce a written dissertation on your project.

Assessment Method:

Dissertation 100%

Disclaimer:

The modules described on this page are what we currently offer. Modules may change for your year of study as we regularly review our offerings to ensure they’re informed by the latest research and teaching methods.

Title:

Theories and Practices of Development

Code:

IDM095

Convenor:

MS Reham Elmorally

Summary:

Explore contemporary theories and practices of international development. You will gain a broad and comprehensive understanding of the key ideas that have influenced efforts to reduce poverty and achieve social justice in low-income countries around the world.

Assessment Method:

Exam 60%, Assignment 40%

Disclaimer:

The modules described on this page are what we currently offer. Modules may change for your year of study as we regularly review our offerings to ensure they’re informed by the latest research and teaching methods.

Title:

Development Finance

Code:

IDM009

Convenor:

PROF Chittur Srinivasan

Summary:

You will gain a thorough understanding of the role of the domestic and international financial system in the economic development process. You will learn how financial sector development contributes to economic development and the important traditional and innovative new sources of development finance for developing countries. You will rigorously examine the advantages and disadvantages of major sources of development finance such as foreign aid and private sector flows and understand the key trends, drivers and debates in the area of development finance.

Assessment Method:

Assignment 70%, Oral 30%

Disclaimer:

The modules described on this page are what we currently offer. Modules may change for your year of study as we regularly review our offerings to ensure they’re informed by the latest research and teaching methods.

Title:

Principles of Communication Design for Development

Code:

IDM045

Convenor:

DR Sarah Cardey

Summary:

Learn how to apply key principles of development communication in practice and how to identify and address key factors that influence the design of communication interventions, through a group design project and interaction with experienced professionals.

Assessment Method:

Oral 50%, Report 50%

Disclaimer:

The modules described on this page are what we currently offer. Modules may change for your year of study as we regularly review our offerings to ensure they’re informed by the latest research and teaching methods.

Title:

Macroeconomics for Developing Countries

Code:

IDM063

Convenor:

DR Neha Hui

Summary:

Learn the theoretical and empirical considerations associated with macroeconomic policy making in developing countries. You will engage with pathbreaking macroeconomic analysis of how countries grow and develop, why some countries are richer than others and whether growth is associated with poverty and inequality.

Assessment Method:

Assignment 50%, Class test 50%

Disclaimer:

The modules described on this page are what we currently offer. Modules may change for your year of study as we regularly review our offerings to ensure they’re informed by the latest research and teaching methods.

Title:

Communication and Innovation in Development

Code:

IDM066

Convenor:

DR Sarah Cardey

Summary:

Explore current ideas about the role of communication in technological and behaviour change in the context of social and economic development. Analyse theories of communication, learning, and behaviour change, and examine how these can be employed to design methods for supporting innovation in livelihoods. Learn through lectures, workshops, individual projects, selected readings, and case studies from around the world.

Assessment Method:

Assignment 100%

Disclaimer:

The modules described on this page are what we currently offer. Modules may change for your year of study as we regularly review our offerings to ensure they’re informed by the latest research and teaching methods.

Title:

Microeconomics for Developing Countries

Code:

IDM070

Convenor:

DR Neha Hui

Summary:

Study the microeconomic issues of development. Learn how asymmetric information, risk aversion, asset inequality and intrahousehold bargaining power affect microeconomic outcomes and well-being for informal sector workers, migrants, and women and children within a household.

Assessment Method:

Assignment 50%, Class test 50%

Disclaimer:

The modules described on this page are what we currently offer. Modules may change for your year of study as we regularly review our offerings to ensure they’re informed by the latest research and teaching methods.

Title:

Microfinance

Code:

IDM075

Convenor:

DR Neha Hui

Summary:

Learn how policy makers design institutions to ensure financial institutions. Through very practical examples of developing countries you will examine how microfinance institutions mitigate the risks associated with lending to rural and urban poor and whether these institutions are successful in aiding disadvantaged communities, especially poor women.

Assessment Method:

Assignment 70%, Class test 30%

Disclaimer:

The modules described on this page are what we currently offer. Modules may change for your year of study as we regularly review our offerings to ensure they’re informed by the latest research and teaching methods.

Title:

Food Security and Development

Code:

IDM077

Convenor:

DR Samuel Poskitt

Summary:

Explore the complex, sometimes contentious, yet crucial relationship between food and global development. You will gain a broad but comprehensive understanding of the challenges and opportunities associated with producing, accessing and consuming food in different parts of the world.  

Assessment Method:

Assignment 100%

Disclaimer:

The modules described on this page are what we currently offer. Modules may change for your year of study as we regularly review our offerings to ensure they’re informed by the latest research and teaching methods.

Title:

The Economics of Financial Markets

Code:

IDM082

Convenor:

DR Tho Pham

Summary:

The primary focus of this module is on understanding the underlying economic reasoning behind how asset prices are determined and how portfolio allocation decisions are made. This includes having an understanding of 1) the theory of choice and the objects of choice faced by an investor; 2) the optimal portfolio decision; 3) equilibrium asset prices; 4) equilibrium portfolio allocations given price and risk preference.

Assessment Method:

Class test 100%

Disclaimer:

The modules described on this page are what we currently offer. Modules may change for your year of study as we regularly review our offerings to ensure they’re informed by the latest research and teaching methods.

Title:

Personal and Professional Development Programme for International Students

Code:

IDM089

Convenor:

DR Georgia Koromila

Summary:

GIIDAE is home to a large international learning community attracting students from around 40 countries each year – and as such is an outstanding example of a globalised educational experience. This module will provide specific support to international students for whom the masters course will be their first experience of living and studying in the UK. The course is designed primarily to further academic, personal and professional development in a friendly, relaxed and informal setting but also aims to ensure that international students learn about UK culture, develop a sense of ‘place’ by learning about Reading and its environs and provide support with the English language.

The module does not have any formal assessment but is recorded on student transcripts dependent on attendance / participation.

Assessment Method:

Disclaimer:

The modules described on this page are what we currently offer. Modules may change for your year of study as we regularly review our offerings to ensure they’re informed by the latest research and teaching methods.

Title:

Addressing Poverty and Inequality through Social Policy

Code:

IDM096

Convenor:

DR Henny Osbahr

Summary:

Learn an International Development perspective about how social policy – at global, national, and local level – is formulated, translated into action and evaluated. Recognise how social policy reflects dynamic political interests or normative positions within an increasingly globalised, uncertain world. Topics also include social protection, new politics of distribution and rights-based approaches. Using sectors examples (e.g. urban, rural, health), country case studies, videos, and group debate achieves a deeper understanding and an opportunity to think critically about solutions. Social policy is essential to the promotion of poverty reduction, equity, rights and sustainable development and to the creation of resilient livelihoods.

Assessment Method:

Exam 100%

Disclaimer:

The modules described on this page are what we currently offer. Modules may change for your year of study as we regularly review our offerings to ensure they’re informed by the latest research and teaching methods.

Title:

Global Issues in Nutrition and Health

Code:

IDM098

Convenor:

DR Simona Grasso

Summary:

Explore major contemporary social issues related to human nutrition and health in developed and developing country contexts. Draw on examples from around the world to investigate issues such as: how and why people’s diets are changing, and what the consequences of these changes are; why obesity is rising, and what can be done to deal with this problem; and how under-nutrition manifests itself in different countries, and what the most effective interventions to address this phenomenon are.

Assessment Method:

Assignment 70%, Report 30%

Disclaimer:

The modules described on this page are what we currently offer. Modules may change for your year of study as we regularly review our offerings to ensure they’re informed by the latest research and teaching methods.

Title:

Global Environmental Change, Justice and Development

Code:

IDM099

Convenor:

DR Andrew Ainslie

Summary:

It’s an ever more interconnected world out there with complex, interacting drivers of change. You’ll learn about the trade-offs in environmental change and social justice that are now central to the development–environment nexus at all levels, from local to global. By exploring a range of conceptual framings of this complexity and then applying this learning to a number of exciting case-studies, you will develop the expertise to understand - and the confidence to tackle - socio-environmental challenges. And you will learn this all through reading, interactive small-group learning, film clips, seminars, study visits, and case-studies introduced and led by regional specialists.

Assessment Method:

Assignment 40%, Oral 10%, Class test 50%

Disclaimer:

The modules described on this page are what we currently offer. Modules may change for your year of study as we regularly review our offerings to ensure they’re informed by the latest research and teaching methods.

Title:

Communication Planning and Processes

Code:

IDM100

Convenor:

DR Sarah Cardey

Summary:

Explore the practical implementation of communication strategies and practices for social and behaviour change in social and economic development. You will learn how to design communication strategies and the principles for strategic use of communication in development interventions. Learn through lectures, workshops, individual projects, selected readings, and case studies from around the world.

Assessment Method:

Assignment 100%

Disclaimer:

The modules described on this page are what we currently offer. Modules may change for your year of study as we regularly review our offerings to ensure they’re informed by the latest research and teaching methods.

Title:

Business Planning and Control

Code:

APMA101

Convenor:

DR Yiorgos Gadanakis

Summary:

Learn how to manage effectively a farm business by increasing the efficient use of the four factors of production (human capital, financial capital, physical capital, entrepreneurship). Gain an in depth understanding of the use of financial tools for decision making, and learn how to use the production function to efficiently allocate resources in order to maximise revenue, by examining the relationship between factor-factor, factor-product, and product-product relationship.  In addition, through practical examples and in class exercises and tutorials, review a series of tools used for farm planning and control, investment appraisal and risk analysis. 

Assessment Method:

Exam 50%, Practical 50%

Disclaimer:

The modules described on this page are what we currently offer. Modules may change for your year of study as we regularly review our offerings to ensure they’re informed by the latest research and teaching methods.

Title:

Ecosystem Services

Code:

APMA102

Convenor:

PROF Martin Lukac

Summary:

The planet carries humans on its shoulders, its ecosystems constantly providing a myriad of things and subsidies which we use and often abuse. You will learn the fundamentals of the relationship between the humans and the provision of Ecosystem Services, their consumption, management, and conservation. You will discuss your ideas on how to preserve Ecosystem Services in a range of UK environments with researchers and practitioners, who bring cutting edge information and knowledge to the module. 

Assessment Method:

Assignment 50%, Report 50%

Disclaimer:

The modules described on this page are what we currently offer. Modules may change for your year of study as we regularly review our offerings to ensure they’re informed by the latest research and teaching methods.

Title:

Rethinking Agricultural Development (including Horticulture): Implementing Solutions

Code:

APMA103

Convenor:

DR Andrew Ainslie

Summary:

You will learn what’s right and what’s wrong with twenty-first century agriculture in different parts of the world. You will carefully consider whether further and deeper applications of technology will reduce hunger (including ‘hidden hunger’ and poor diets), human drudgery and pressure on the earth’s resources, or do the answers lie in adopting ‘regenerative’ forms of production, such as Conservation Agriculture? Through a series of lectures delivered by subject specialists, debates, study visits and collaborative work, you will learn to critically evaluate the issues, role and impact of agriculture (including horticulture and livestock production) for development. 

Assessment Method:

Assignment 80%, Oral 20%

Disclaimer:

The modules described on this page are what we currently offer. Modules may change for your year of study as we regularly review our offerings to ensure they’re informed by the latest research and teaching methods.

Title:

Agriculture in the Tropics

Code:

APMA41

Convenor:

DR Andrew Daymond

Summary:

Learn about the agricultural systems of tropical and sub-tropical regions. Examine the major components of agricultural systems including crops, livestock, soils and climate, and their interactions. Discuss Awareness of current issues for agriculture in developing countries such as the 'Green Revolution' and the use of pesticides.

Assessment Method:

Assignment 80%, Oral 20%

Disclaimer:

The modules described on this page are what we currently offer. Modules may change for your year of study as we regularly review our offerings to ensure they’re informed by the latest research and teaching methods.

Title:

Climate change and food systems

Code:

APMA90

Convenor:

Summary:

Anybody working in the food system needs to consider climate change. You will learn about the global climate system and how organisms respond to climate factors. You will apply this knowledge to understand how agriculture and the wider food system need to adapt to climate change. You will learn about a range of scientific approaches used in this area of research, how to decipher the methodology sections of scientific papers, and how to critique what you read in scientific journals and in the media. You will also develop transferable skills in literature review and information synthesis.

Assessment Method:

Assignment 70%, Class test 30%

Disclaimer:

The modules described on this page are what we currently offer. Modules may change for your year of study as we regularly review our offerings to ensure they’re informed by the latest research and teaching methods.

Title:

Qualitative Research Methods

Code:

APME40

Convenor:

DR Giacomo Zanello

Summary:

Gain fundamental knowledge of qualitative research methods and evaluate the contribution of such methods to social science research, particularly in relation to economics and as applied in the fields of agriculture and food. Learn through integrated lectures, practical sessions, and applied group work.

Assessment Method:

Oral 60%, Class test 40%

Disclaimer:

The modules described on this page are what we currently offer. Modules may change for your year of study as we regularly review our offerings to ensure they’re informed by the latest research and teaching methods.

Title:

Appraisal of Agricultural and Rural Development Projects

Code:

APME61

Convenor:

PROF Chittur Srinivasan

Summary:

You will appreciate the role of project appraisal in making informed decisions on the allocation of resources for agricultural and rural development projects in developing countries. You will learn the concepts and techniques of cost-benefit analysis and their application in the presence of market failures, imperfections and distortions. You will develop skills in the appraisal of real world development projects from an economy wide perspective and in environmental and social appraisal. You will understand how macroeconomic policy and management issues affect the outcome of development projects.

Assessment Method:

Assignment 50%, Class test 50%

Disclaimer:

The modules described on this page are what we currently offer. Modules may change for your year of study as we regularly review our offerings to ensure they’re informed by the latest research and teaching methods.

Title:

Food Policy

Code:

APME67

Convenor:

DR Giuseppe Nocella

Summary:

Learn about the regulation of the food industry in the UK, including the rationale for government intervention, how intervention takes place, and the impacts of policy. Critically appraise current and proposed interventions in food markets. Learn through lectures, suggested readings, and class discussions.

Assessment Method:

Report 30%, Class test 70%

Disclaimer:

The modules described on this page are what we currently offer. Modules may change for your year of study as we regularly review our offerings to ensure they’re informed by the latest research and teaching methods.

Title:

Econometrics

Code:

APME71

Convenor:

PROF Kelvin Balcombe

Summary:

Learn how to evaluate different econometric models using different types of data to answer questions in economics and other social sciences, through a combination of lectures and practical classes. Work with econometric models that can deal with different types of dependent variables (continuous, categorical, censored), and different types of data (cross-section and time-series). Carry out different types of hypothesis testing and learn how to interpret the results. Learn how to translate data into models to make forecasts and to support decision making in a wide variety of fields, ranging from microeconomics to finance and marketing. The prerequisites for this course are familiarity with elementary mathematics and statistics.

Assessment Method:

Assignment 50%, Report 35%, Class test 15%

Disclaimer:

The modules described on this page are what we currently offer. Modules may change for your year of study as we regularly review our offerings to ensure they’re informed by the latest research and teaching methods.

Title:

Agricultural Project Planning and Management in Developing Countries

Code:

APME72

Convenor:

PROF Chittur Srinivasan

Summary:

You will address the key challenges in the management of agricultural and development projects in developing countries. You will acquire the skills, tools and techniques for effective management of development projects at all stages of the project cycle – from project identification and formulation to implementation and evaluation. You will gain an understanding of management theory perspectives on organisational behaviour, motivation, leadership, conflict management and stakeholder engagement in developing country settings – focusing on the perspectives of the contingency school of management.

Assessment Method:

Assignment 50%, Class test 50%

Disclaimer:

The modules described on this page are what we currently offer. Modules may change for your year of study as we regularly review our offerings to ensure they’re informed by the latest research and teaching methods.

Title:

Energy, Climate Change and Development

Code:

APME75

Convenor:

DR Nick Bardsley

Summary:

Examine the core social and economic processes contributing to climate change and critically assess proposed solutions, drawing on ecological economics and energy economics. Learn through lectures integrated with student-centred learning activities and guided preparatory reading.

Assessment Method:

Assignment 90%, Oral 10%

Disclaimer:

The modules described on this page are what we currently offer. Modules may change for your year of study as we regularly review our offerings to ensure they’re informed by the latest research and teaching methods.

Title:

Resource and Environmental Economics

Code:

APME76

Convenor:

PROF Elizabeth Robinson

Summary:

Develop the skill set needed to analyse environmental and resource problems. Learn about environmental policy making. In the computer lab, apply key techniques used by environmental economists such as environmental valuation. In this module, based on microeconomic foundations, we will consider conditions under which tradable permits, taxes, or subsidies might be most effective at controlling pollution; how to best manage natural forests, forest plantations, and fisheries; and how best to deal with international environmental problems.

Assessment Method:

Practical 50%, Class test 50%

Disclaimer:

The modules described on this page are what we currently offer. Modules may change for your year of study as we regularly review our offerings to ensure they’re informed by the latest research and teaching methods.

Title:

Environmental Economics

Code:

APME77

Convenor:

PROF Elizabeth Robinson

Summary:

Develop the skill set needed to analyse environmental problems. Learn about environmental policy making. In the computer lab, apply key techniques used by environmental economists such as environmental valuation. In this module, based on microeconomic foundations, we will consider, for example, conditions under which tradable permits, taxes, or subsidies might be most effective at controlling pollution; and how to deal with international environmental problems.

Assessment Method:

Practical 50%, Class test 50%

Disclaimer:

The modules described on this page are what we currently offer. Modules may change for your year of study as we regularly review our offerings to ensure they’re informed by the latest research and teaching methods.

Title:

Introductory Statistics and Econometrics

Code:

APME84

Convenor:

PROF Kelvin Balcombe

Summary:

Learn how to analyse data using basic tools to answer questions in economics and other social sciences, through a combination of lectures and practical classes. Understand the fundamentals of regression analysis: model specification, hypothesis testing, coefficient interpretation. Learn how to translate data into models to make forecasts and to support decision making in a wide variety of fields, ranging from microeconomics to finance and marketing. The prerequisites for this course are familiarity with elementary mathematics and statistics.

Assessment Method:

Report 80%, Class test 20%

Disclaimer:

The modules described on this page are what we currently offer. Modules may change for your year of study as we regularly review our offerings to ensure they’re informed by the latest research and teaching methods.

Title:

Quantitative Marketing Research Methods

Code:

APME85

Convenor:

DR Giacomo Zanello

Summary:

Good marketing decisions require solid marketing research. Develop the theoretical and applied knowledge of multivariate statistical techniques for data analysis in a market research environment. Gain exposure to and understanding of different techniques and develop experience in the application of key quantitative methods that are typically used to analyse data in marketing. Learn through integrated lectures and practical sessions, where you will analyse real datasets.

Assessment Method:

Report 70%, Class test 30%

Disclaimer:

The modules described on this page are what we currently offer. Modules may change for your year of study as we regularly review our offerings to ensure they’re informed by the latest research and teaching methods.

Title:

Global Architecture of Crisis, Conflict and Disaster Management

Code:

LWMCPA

Convenor:

DR Marie Aronsson-Storrier

Summary:

This module introduces students to the key concepts, legal principles, actors and institutions, which are central to addressing contemporary global challenges. It also introduces current global initiatives of law and policy relevance, such as the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030, UN Paris Agreement on Climate Change 2015, and the UN Sustainable Development Goals 2015-2030. It explores possible definitions and parameters of core concepts and themes such as ‘crisis’, ‘conflict’, ‘disasters’, ‘sustainable development’, ‘disaster risk management’, and ‘climate justice'. It further identifies and examines legal regimes and the primary actors responsible for developing and promoting their legal principles of particular importance to contemporary global challenges.

Assessment Method:

Assignment 80%, Report 20%

Disclaimer:

The modules described on this page are what we currently offer. Modules may change for your year of study as we regularly review our offerings to ensure they’re informed by the latest research and teaching methods.

Title:

Disaster Risk Management

Code:

LWMDRM

Convenor:

PROF Rosa Freedman

Summary:

This module focuses on preventing, preparing for, responding to, as well as recovering from disasters triggered by both ‘human-made’ and ‘natural’ hazards. In doing so, it examines a number of key issues in relation to measures to be taken before, during, and post disasters, such as: the law governing responses to emergencies and disasters known as international disaster relief or response law (IDRL); disaster risk reduction (DRR); how to better safeguard basic human rights and protect more ‘vulnerable’ groups in all phases of a disaster; governance and accountability issues; and dispute settlement where a disaster that has occurred is attributable at least in part to some element of wrongdoing or negligence. The module considers these issues in the context of significant global law and policy trends and developments.

Assessment Method:

Disclaimer:

The modules described on this page are what we currently offer. Modules may change for your year of study as we regularly review our offerings to ensure they’re informed by the latest research and teaching methods.

Title:

Human Rights Law, Policy, and Practice

Code:

LWMHRL

Convenor:

DR Steve Samuel

Summary:

This module introduces students to foundational human rights concepts, principles, institutions, challenges, as well as developments. Specifically, it considers the existence and nature of different types of human rights (civil, political, economic, social, and cultural), as well as different categories of rights (absolute, limited, and qualified). These are illustrated through the examination of different ‘hard’ law human rights instruments, particularly the International Civil and Political Rights 1966, and International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 1966 as well as diverse ‘soft’ law and policy instruments (eg the UN Declaration of Human  Rights 1948, the treaty bodies, and independent experts). The module examines examples of different types of rights, particularly those that are most commonly violated in such contexts as responding to security threats or emergency situations (eg the right to life, prohibition against torture, denial of liberty). Similarly, it considers significant challenges associated with the realisation of other human rights, notably resource challenges for poorer states seeking the ‘progressive realisation’ of rights such as food, water, shelter, and adequate healthcare. It examines too a number of currently topical and emerging issues, for example in relation to third generation rights, global capitalism, and disasters.

Assessment Method:

Assignment 100%

Disclaimer:

The modules described on this page are what we currently offer. Modules may change for your year of study as we regularly review our offerings to ensure they’re informed by the latest research and teaching methods.

Title:

Introduction to International Law

Code:

LWMIIA

Convenor:

DR Lawrence Hill-Cawthorne

Summary:

Introduction to International Law teaches the basics of international law succinctly, but to an advanced level. The module is designed to provide a starting point for students entering the LLM programme who do not already have a background in international law. The module covers the key features of the international legal system, such as the nature of the international law, treaties and other sources of international law, the subjects of the international legal system, dispute settlement and the establishment of state responsibility.  It also gives students the opportunity to put some of the mechanisms of the international legal system into practice, through interactive group exercises.

Assessment Method:

Assignment 100%

Disclaimer:

The modules described on this page are what we currently offer. Modules may change for your year of study as we regularly review our offerings to ensure they’re informed by the latest research and teaching methods.