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Caspases and the apoptosome
The caspases are a family of proteins that are one of the main executors of the apoptotic process. They belong to a group of enzymes known as cysteine proteases and exist within the cell as inactive pro-forms or zymogens. These zymogens can be cleaved to form active enzymes following the induction of apoptosis.
Induction of apoptosis via death receptors typically results in the activation of an initiator caspase such as caspase 8 or caspase 10. These caspases can then activate other caspases in a cascade. This cascade eventually leads to the activation of the effector caspases, such as caspase 3 and caspase 6. These caspases are responsible for the cleavage of the key cellular proteins, such as cytoskeletal proteins, that leads to the typical morphological changes observed in cells undergoing apoptosis.
There are a number of other mechanisms, aside from activation of the death receptors, through which the caspase cascade can be activated. Granzyme B can be delivered into cells by cytotoxic T lymphocytes and is able to directly activate caspases 3, 7, 8 and 10. The mitochondria are also key regulators of the caspase cascade and apoptosis. Release of cytochrome C from mitochondria can lead to the activation of caspase 9, and then of caspase 3. This effect is mediated through the formation of an apoptosome, a multi-protein complex consisting of cytochrome C, Apaf-1, pro-caspase 9 and ATP. The formation of the apoptosome is illustrated below.
One of the hallmarks of apoptosis is the cleavage of chromosomal DNA into nucleosomal units. The caspases play an important role in this process by activating DNases, inhibiting DNA repair enzymes and breaking down structural proteins in the nucleus. This processes is illustrated below.
1) Inactivation of enzymes involved in DNA repair.
The enzyme poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase, or PARP, was one of the first proteins identified as a substrate for caspases. PARP is involved in repair of DNA damage and functions by catalyzing the synthesis of poly (ADP-ribose) and by binding to DNA strand breaks and modifying nuclear proteins. The ability of PARP to repair DNA damage is prevented following cleavage of PARP by caspase-3.
2) Breakdown of structural nuclear proteins.
Lamins are intra-nuclear proteins that maintain the shape of the nucleus and mediate interactions between chromatin and the nuclear membrane. Degradation of lamins by caspase 6 results in the chromatin condensation and nuclear fragmentation commonly observed in apoptotic cells.
3) Fragmentation of DNA.
The fragmentation of DNA into nucleosomal units - as seen in DNA laddering assays - is caused by an enzyme known as CAD, or caspase activated DNase. Normally CAD exists as an inactive complex with ICAD (inhibitor of CAD). During apoptosis, ICAD is cleaved by caspases, such as caspase 3, to release CAD. Rapid fragmentation of the nuclear DNA follows.
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